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Biological synthesis methods provide improved control over nanoparticle size and shape due to the presence of natural reducing and capping agentssuch as polyphenols, proteins, and flavonoidsin plant extracts, which guide uniform nucleation and growth while eliminating the need for toxic chemicals or synthetic stabilizers (Restrepo and Villa, 2021)
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Likewise, caffeic acid itself directly inhibited ERK1/2 (MAPK) activity in melanoma and epidermoid carcinoma cells, disrupting a key pathway that promotes tumor growth and migration (150)
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